martes, 30 de octubre de 2007

La Batalla contra el Benceno - De sus peligros, sus formas de detección y legislaciones mochas

¿Lo qué?
El benceno es un hidrocarburo aromático que se produce al quemar productos naturales. Es un componente derivado de productos del carbón y el petróleo y se lo encuentra en la gasolina y otros combustibles. Se lo utiliza en la manufactura de plásticos, detergentes, pesticidas, y otros químicos como el etil benceno, ciclohexano, nitrobenceno, clorobencenos y anhídrido maléico.

¿Y…? ¿Qué onda?
El benceno es un conocido cancerígeno causante de leucemia, que tiene un límite máximo de exposición humana de 1 ppm por turno de trabajo. El límite más común para exposición por periodos cortos es de 5 ppm para tiempos de no más de 15 minutos. Las personas que trabajan con benceno o que están expuestas a el por periodos prolongados, son las que más chances tienen de desarrollar enfermedades que van desde anemia hasta cáncer. Las investigaciones demuestran que algunos individuos han desarrollado leucemia y murieron de ella a causa de exposición al benceno por períodos de entre 5 a 30 ó más años. La exposición crónica puede afectar la médula ósea y la producción de sangre. La exposición esporádica puede causar aletargamiento, mareos, pérdida de conocimiento y la muerte. Desafortunadamente, el olor del benceno no es una alerta adecuada de su peligro. El umbral para que pueda ser detectado por el olfato es de 100 ppm, que ampliamente supera lo tolerable. Tambien pueden acarrear diversos desórdenes circulatorios sin ninguna clase síntomas.

Por estas razones, los gobiernos alrededor del mundo legislan sobre la exposición industrial máxima permitida. Por ejemplo, en 1987, Seguridad e Higiene de los EUA (OSHA), determinaron el límite máximo de 1 ppm para turnos de 8 horas, aunque estudios recientes sugieren que estos niveles pueden ser aun muy altos. Estudios publicados en 1984 (Crump y Allen) y 1992 (Paustenbach et al), predijeron de 3 a 5 sobre 1000 trabajadores en riesgo de vida a una tasa promedio de 1 ppm (3,2 mg/m3).

Como resultado, basados en este modelo de predicciones, el benceno fue el primer agente carcinógeno que se reguló por la Unión Europea (EU) en su iniciativa de las directivas de la calidad del aire. En Diciembre de 2004, investigadores divulgaron que los trabajadores en una fábrica china de zapatos que se expusieron a menos de 1 PPM de benceno experimentaron una declinación significativa de glóbulos blancos en sangre. Investigaciones futuras tenderán a forzar una reducción mayor en los niveles legales permitidos que actualmente son de 0,5 ppm para las normas OSHA. El instituto nacional de la seguridad y de la salud ocupacionales (NIOSH) recomendó el límite de exposición (REL) para el benceno sea de 0.1 ppm (concentración media / 8 horas) y 1 ppm para exposiciones de no más de 15 minutos.

¿Dónde demonios…?
Trabajadores de distintas industrias pueden estar en riesgo de exposición a este producto químico potencialmente mortal. Las industrias que utilizan el benceno en el proceso de producción incluyen refinerías de petróleo, las plantas químicas, las plantas de horno de coke y la industria de la goma. Hoy, la mayoría del benceno es producido por la industria petroquímica usando uno de tres procesos. La salida de un reformador catalítico proporciona una mezcla de hidrocarburos que se pueden combinar con hidrógeno y exponer a un catalizador a alta presión para formar compuestos aromáticos. Este benceno es tamizado utilizando solventes. Alternativamente, el tolueno se puede utilizar como material iniciador en un proceso llamado hidrodealquilación. Finalmente, la gasolina de pirólisis (un subproducto líquido rico en benceno perteneciente a la unidad de cracking del etileno) se puede destilar para extraer el benceno.

Exposición industrial al benceno – Cuando los mulos se convierten en conejillos:
Los empleadores tienen la obligación de elegir un sistema de monitoreo que alcance los requerimientos en cuanto precisión y apreciación del Standard legal vigente, teniendo en cuenta las condiciones singulares del campo. Los Standards OSHA, por ejemplo, establecen que el método de monitoreo tiene que ser confiable en un 95%: no menor al +/- 25% para concentraciones de benceno mayores o iguales a 0,5 ppm. La forma tradicional de alcanzar esto, es desplegando en el campo canisters del tipo Summa, que son recogidos y reemplazados cada X intervalo de tiempo, que puede variar desde un turno hasta una semana ó más. Estos cilindros al vacío de acero inoxidable de 6 litros son llamados así debido a que su superficie interna es pasivizada mediante un proceso Summa. Este tratamiento químico de “electro-lustre” asegura una superficie interna de una limpieza quirúrgica, de manera tal que se pueda asegurar que cualquier contaminante detectado en el gas capturado sea una fiel representación de la atmósfera que se sometió a prueba. Cuando los canisters son puestos in situ por vez primera, se encuentran a alto vacío y libres de impurezas gaseosas. Se le agrega una válvula de goteo para que el incremento de presión durante las pruebas sea uniforme. Cuando el período de prueba finaliza, se retiran los canisters para ser analizados en laboratorio mediante una cromatografía ó espectrometría de masas.

Este método a menudo cumple con las ley en los casos donde la concentración máxima de benceno no excede los 0.5 ppm, mas no es confiable donde potencialmente estos niveles pueden incrementarse. Para estos casos, el área donde los trabajadores respiran debe ser monitoreada para evitar exposiciones de corto plazo cuyo límite actual en los Estados Unidos es de 5 ppm. Uno de los métodos actuales para medir la exposición personal son los tubos absorbentes (de carbón activado con una base de cáscara de coco), que se los usa durante el turno de trabajo. Estos sensores son enviados periódicamente al laboratorio, para poder realizar una estadística de exposición de cada individuo. Como los resultados de los análisis pueden tardar varios días, ninguno de estos métodos es una alarma eficiente de la liberación accidental de benceno.

Existen sistemas de cromatografía en línea que se utilizan para hacer un análisis en tiempo real, pero la combinación del muestreo y su respectivo análisis puede demorar 15 ó más minutos, de manera tal que habría que desplegar varios analizadores en todo el área para garantizar que el sistema sea efectivo.

Monitoreo de área por espectrometría de masa: un precio muy elevado a pagar solo por la salud de los operarios
Una alternativa muy efectiva es utilizar la espectrometría ambiental de masa (EMS por su sigla en inglés). Un sistema basado en un sector magnético puede proveer una rápida lectura de muchos compuestos orgánicos tóxicos volátiles (VOCs). El EMS provee una detección velóz de niveles de ppb de benceno en el aire traído de varios puntos de la planta, teniendo así una alerta temprana de una posible liberación accidental de benceno. Un típico análisis de refinería incluye mediciones de benceno, tolueno, etil benceno y xilenos (BTEX), con los VOCs adicionales dependiendo del sito. Una instalación típica consta de un espectrómetro de masas configurado para operar en áreas potencialmente peligrosas, teniendo al menos un puerto 64 para Rapid Multistream Sampler (RMS), proveyendo 60 líneas de muestreo y 4 puertos de calibración. Un sistema como el descrito, puede monitorear con precisión un punto en particular en aproximadamente 12 segundos, de modo tal que cada uno de los 60 puntos de muestreo es medido cada 12 minutos, protegiendo a los trabajadores de las exposiciones de corto plazo.

Principios de operación. ¿Qué…? ¿Acaso piensa comprarlo?? Psss!!
El RMS aspira muestras continuamente en todas sus líneas de medición y las desvía una por una dentro de una sonda de membrana caliente donde cae la presión y las moléculas orgánicas son “goteadas” dentro de la fuente de iones del espectrómetro de masas. La ionización electrónica se utiliza para ionizar y fragmentar las moléculas. La fuente produce una energía considerable (1000eV), la cual es acelerada hacia un campo magnético perpendicular producido por un electroimán microprocesado. Las fuerzas aplicadas a los iones individualmente afectan su trayectoria curva de forma tal que solo los iones con el radio de masa:carga especificada puedan pasar por la hendidura donde son detectados por un detector de plato microacanalado (MCP por su sigla en inglés). La interacción entre las moléculas muestreadas y los electrones energizados de la fuente iónica produce diferentes resultados dependiendo de la naturaleza de cada interacción individual. Una proporción estadísticamente estable de dichas interacciones dá como resultado la perdida de un solo electrón. Una proporción de las tantas colisiones dará como resultado el quiebre de algunas uniones moleculares. Además, una proporción fija de las moléculas van a ser isótopos de carbono e hidrógeno. El resultado de todas las fragmentaciones e isótopos posibles que existen en cada especie molecular forman un patrón singular de fragmentación que puede ser utilizado para identificar y cuantificar los numerosos compuestos gaseosos en una atmósfera típica de planta. El software del EMS opera en tiempo real, utiliza la inversión de matriz como sistema de corrección de las interferencias que aparecen en el histograma. El análisis de varias superposiciones ó mezclas de gases “interfirientes” requiere de medición por deconvolución de los picos superpuestos. Cuando se los combina, los picos superpuestos, obedecen el principio de superposición lineal de los picos. Este principio establece que el dibujo de la altura del pico a una masa dada, es equivalente a la suma de las alturas de los picos que corresponden linealmente a las concentraciones individuales de los componentes de la mezcla. Pucha, tá bueno, ¿no?

Benceno en agua: tomáte una dósis de chamamé
Uno o más de los puertos de muestreo del EMS pueden ser conectados a un toma-muestras de membrana capilar soportado (SCMS, su sigla en inglés), para la medición de benceno y otros VOCs en agua. Esto le permite a un espectrómetro de masa simple, monitorear emisiones de aire fugitivas, fuentes puntuales y descarga de aguas residuales. En operación, un gas portador de aire ó nitrógeno, ingresa a la sonda a través de un accesorio de compresión Standard adecuado. El caudal típico para estos dispositivos es de 20 cm3/min., el cual es controlado por un caudalímetro simple y una válvula de aguja. Cuando la sonda se instala en una celda de caudal, los 2 metros del tubo capilar de goma siliconada están en contacto con el agua de proceso. Los solventes orgánicos se permeabilizan a través de la membrana hacia el fluido portador. La calibración inicial del dispositivo requiere conocimiento de la temperatura y de la concentración de benceno. El SCMS es típicamente calibrado a 5 ppb: El limite máximo de EPA de contaminantes para el benceno.


Conclusión técnica: la que todos miran para otro lado y silban despacito

La instalación de un espectrómetro de masa ambiental moderno puede proveer amplia cobertura y rápida respuesta cuando se lo configura para monitorear emisiones puntuales y fugitivas. La experiencia demuestra que la incidencia de las alarmas tiende a ser mayor cuando el equipo es instalado por primera vez, pero la corrección de las perdidas acumuladas y el mejoramiento en la estandarización de los procedimientos operacionales llevan a una reducción de las emisiones toxicas en la planta. La confiabilidad de la tecnología y la flexibilidad en su configuración asegura al propietario que los costos han de mantenerse bajos. La capacidad para medir benceno con repetibilidad en ppb asegura que las futuras legislaciones ambientales para regular el benceno no van a comprometer la instalación.

Conclusión moral-mortal
Los invito a leer la Ley 24051 de generación y trato de residuos peligrosos y que las saquen ustedes.

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To see how charts work we’re going to create a simple bar chart that shows sales by plant category.
The first step in creating a chart is to select the data you want to chart. (Download OpenOffice.org , install it and run Calc)
Click and drag to select the cells in the revenue column including the column title.
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